A Flock of Shepherds: The National Conference of Catholic Bishops
A Flock of Shepherds: By Thomas J. Reese, S.J.
(Kansas City: Sheed & Ward, 1992)
This book can be order from the publisher (800-333-7373). There follows the first two paragraphs from each chapter of the book.
Since the Second Vatican Council concluded in 1966, the U.S. Catholic Church has undergone major reform and has taken on a high-profile role in American politics. Controversy has accompanied church reform as well as the role of the U.S. bishops in American political life. Bishops are criticized from both the right and the left.
At the center of controversy over changes in the church and the role of the bishops in politics is the National Conference of Catholic Bishops, the organization through which the bishops act on the national level.
The NCCB has been responsible for putting the liturgy in English, allowing Communion in the hand, ordaining married men as deacons, liberalizing annulment procedures, modernizing religious education, permitting Catholics to eat meat on Fridays, and establishing ecumenical dialogue with non-Catholic denominations.
The bishops' conference has also thrust itself into the American political arena through its pastoral letters on economic justice and peace. Its representatives actively lobby Capitol Hill for social programs, for aid to Catholic school parents, and against abortion. The conference id also at the center of conflicts between the American bishops and Roman authorities.
What is the National Conference of Catholic Bishops, how does it operate, what has it accomplished, and how is it used by the American Catholic bishops? Why do some bishops and Vatican officials want its role limited? Why has it been attacked from both the left and the right.
Thomas Reese, Jesuit priest, journalist, a political scientist, and senior fellow at the Woodstock Theological Center at Georgetown University, answers these questions in this unique book about how Catholic bishops decide church policy and influence American politics. His earlier book, Archbishop: Inside the Power Structure of the American Catholic Church, examined the work of bishops in their local dioceses. [From the back cover of the book]
This book can be ordered from the Woodstock Theological Center for $19.95 plus $1.50 for postage and handling, or from the publisher (800-333-7373). There follows the first two paragraphs from each chapter of the book. Click here for a list of reviews of A Flock of Shepherds.
"The conference offers the most effective vehicle nationally for our teaching office." Cardinal James Hickey.
"As the bishops must surely recognize, their moral authority is visibly eroding." Patrick Buchanan.
"Our national conference . . . provides a framework and a forum for us to share ideas, to teach and elucidate sound Catholic Doctrine, set pastoral directions and develop policy positions on contemporary social issues." Cardinal Joseph Bernardin.
From every corner of the United States, the conspirators, dressed in black, gather in Washington, D.C., to plot a radical transformation of America. From outward appearances, this mostly middle-aged, white, male assembly is not the stuff of conspiracies. But these are the American Catholic bishops, and their agenda is nothing less than capturing the soul of America.
Unlike other conspirators, they do not hide what they do. Their conspiracy is mostly open and public. They are truly conspirators as their classical training would tell them. "Conspiracy" comes from the Latin "conspirare" which means to breathe together, to harmonize, to agree together. For Christians, the root also conjures up the idea of the Spirit that dwells in the people of God. The goal of these conspirators is more revolutionary than that of any antiestablishment comrades for they want to transform American society by the power of the Gospel….
Episcopal candidates should be "priests who have already proven themselves as teachers of the faith as it is proclaimed by the Magisterium of the church." John Paul II
"I try to get there [Rome] when an American appointment is under consideration." Cardinal John O'Connor
"This is the man who was the tradesman's son: the backstairs brat who was born in Cheapside." The Four Knights
The National Conference of Catholic Bishops is the most exclusive men's club in America. The club's size is currently limited to about 290 active members. To be eligible for membership one must be Catholic, male, unmarried, between thirty-five and seventy-five years of age. Like many exclusive clubs, it is mostly white (42 percent of Irish ancestry, 20 percent German, 8 percent English, and 14 percent other European). In 1991, two Native Americans, twelve blacks, twenty Hispanics, and no Asians were in the club, which brings the minority membership to about 11 percent. Its members preside over numerous multi-million dollar corporations whose combined finances would dwarf most major corporations. They employ thousands of people and manage large properties.
In many ways, however, this group breaks company with other exclusive clubs in America. Not only are its members unmarried, they must be celibate and Catholic priests for at least five years before becoming a bishop. Celibacy is an impossible hurdle for most Americans. Nor does the club cater to the upper-class as do other exclusive clubs. Most members come from working-class background. Only 11 percent of the bishops had fathers who graduated from college. Sixty-two percent of their fathers never graduated from high school. And despite their heavy responsibilities, the bishops are poorly paid. Considering the long hours they put in working, their take home pay probably would equal that of someone on minimum wage….
"A bishops' conference as such does not have a mandatum docendi [a mandate to teach]."
Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger
"The only purpose of the NCWC was to express the church's concern about the temporal affairs of the United States." Bishop William E. McManus
The NCCB/USCC operates within the theological and canonical framework of the Roman Catholic church. To many people brought up in the pre-Vatican II church, the National Conference of Catholic Bishops is an anomalous body in the Catholic church. It does not fit easily into the traditional hierarchical model of the church that places the pope at the top of the pyramid with bishops, priests, and laity at successively lower levels in the church. A few scholars, such as Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, have questioned the teaching authority and canonical status of episcopal conferences. In 1983 when discussing a draft of the pastoral letter on peace with the American bishops, he said that "A bishops' conference as such does not have a mandatum docendi [a mandate to teach]. This belongs only to the individual bishop or to the college of bishops with the pope."
In 1988 the Vatican issued a working paper (instrumentum laboris) on the theological and canonical status of episcopal conferences that took a similar tack. The draft document severely limited the authority of episcopal conferences. The response to this draft from the scholarly community was very critical as was the response of the National Conference of Catholic Bishops. The Vatican eventually dropped the draft in favor of starting over from scratch….
"The most difficult thing [about being president] was being on the spot with the press all the time." Archbishop John Quinn.
"They want somebody who is not going to be excessively creative ... because you don't want a Franklin Roosevelt in the conference." Archbishop Daniel Pilarczyk.
"We historically have had able bishops who are not willing to invest the time in conference work." Bishop James Malone
In the NCCB/USCC there have always been some bishops who have been more influential than others. This influence is not based on canonical distinctions but on the respect (or fear) these bishops are able to win from their peers. As will be seen in this chapter, leadership and authority in the conference come from democratic processes rather than hierarchical structures. With the backing of the other bishops, these leaders can have real impact on the direction of the conference. This chapter will especially look at the elections and roles of the NCCB/USCC presidents.
The NCCB/USCC is an assembly of equals, a flock of shepherds. In the conference, cardinals and archbishops have no special authority or privileges. They are legally equal to any other bishop. Nor do bishops from large dioceses have more authority than bishops from small dioceses. In theory, the bishop of Gallup, New Mexico, has equal rights with the cardinal archbishop of New York….
"I don't believe for a minute that the bishops wrote those two pastorals. I think it was the staff." Justice Antonin Scalia.
"Isn't that curious, Mr. Justice, I hear many people saying that about Supreme Court decisions." Msgr. Robert Lynch
"The conference's clout comes from the bishops. The conference's agenda has to come from the bishops. Staff who don't understand that shouldn't work here." John Carr
The NCCB/USCC and its leaders deal with a wide agenda of business: pastoral letters and statements, conference budgets and finances, canon law and liturgy, pastoral workshops and refugee resettlement, lobbying and litigation, etc. This agenda comes from many sources. Canon law, for example, authorizes conferences to act in many areas (see chapter 2). The Holy See often asks the conferences for reports on various topics or for comments on documents drafted in Rome. Suggestions also can come from any bishops who would like the conference to do something. Ideas are also generated by the bishops' staff. Often these suggestions are in response to problems or opportunities facing the church or the world.
However the suggestions arise, the conference and its committees will be helped by the conference staff that is called the general secretariat. Conservative Catholics attack the staff claiming that the "liberal" staff controls the bishops, something that both the bishops and the staff deny. The Catholic Eye refers to the staff as a bureaucratic apparat whose "reigning tradition" is "Dissent as Usual." In this chapter we will examine the role of the NCCB secretariat in helping the bishops make the conference work….
"The life of the conference carries forward on the shoulders of the various committees." Bishop James Malone
"Activists tend to get elected chairpersons of committees." Archbishop John Roach
"Unless we fight it out in the committee, unless we reach some consensus there, we will never get the consensus." Cardinal Joseph Bernardin
Because of its size and the extent of its agenda, much of the work of the bishops' conference must be done in committees. This chapter will examine the variety of committees in the conference, the selection of committee chairs, the role of the committees in developing consensus, and the role of the Administrative Committee/Board.
There are sixty-two committees listed in the conference directory, forty-nine for the NCCB and thirteen for the USCC. USCC committees can have lay, religious, and clerical members while the NCCB committees are made up entirely of bishops. The directory divides the NCCB/USCC committees into two categories: executive level and general membership level. The executive level committees deal mostly with administrative issues (budget and finance, personnel, priorities and plans) of the conference while the membership committees deal with substantive policy….
"It is commonly seen as unwise in the NCCB to raise three issues: holy days of obligation, age of confirmation, and new special collections." Archbishop John May
"Ambiguity is a legitimate and treasured part of our moral tradition. Perhaps the consensus will be on ambiguity." Archbishop John Roach.
"Can [the NCCB/USCC] speak to our age in a prophetic voice, or does the necessity of consensus mute its voice?" Cardinal John Dearden
"The meetings are too large, the agenda too heavy, the time is too short." Bishop Austin B. Vaughan
"I know of few comparable groups who would accomplish so much with such a high degree of unanimity in only a few days." Archbishop John May
The ultimate authority for the NCCB/USCC is all the bishops gathered in assembly. These assembly meetings occur, for the most part, in public and disclose conflict and consensus among the bishops. The NCCB/USCC has developed procedures for reducing conflict and fostering consensus, including the use of Robert's Rules of Order. This chapter will examine the workings of the NCCB/USCC assembly and the areas of conflict and consensus among the bishops.
In the twenty-five years since the close of the Second Vatican Council, the Catholic church has gone through more change than it did in the last 300 years. This has been a time of much controversy and conflict. It would be a miracle if the NCCB/USCC were free of the conflict that afflicted the church during this period. At the same time, it would be false to see the bishops' conference as the site of constant turmoil and division….
"To condemn kings, not serve among their servants, is my open office!" Thomas A'Becket
"The U.S. Catholic Church is the most effective political force advocating the liberal agenda." Stephen D. Johnson and Joseph B. Tamney
"Until the bishops decide an issue, we don't move." John Carr
From their very beginning in the nineteenth century, a primary purpose of episcopal conferences was to provide a mechanism for dealing with government officials. This was certainly the primary purpose of the NCWC when it was founded during the First World War. Msgr. John J. Burke, the first general secretary, believed that the church needed the NCWC to look out for Catholic interests just as other interest groups had Washington-based organizations to look out for theirs.
The issues of concern to the NCCB/USCC include a much broader agenda than would be covered by most other interest groups. Part of the agenda includes issues that impact on the financial and legal well-being of the institutional church and church organizations: aid to Catholic schools, funding of Catholic social services, tax exemption of church entities, tax deductions for charitable giving, and the impact of government laws and regulations on church organizations….
"They [the Holy See] are always talking about the autonomy of the single bishop. It's a smokescreen. What they mean is that it is easier to deal with one bishop than with a hierarchy." Rev. James H. Ryan
"I do not perceive that we go there [Rome] to be called on the carpet, nor do we go there to bang on the table." Archbishop Daniel Pilarczyk
"Many of the prefects and other curial officials had minimal knowledge about the church in the United States. Some officials knew very little factually, or had a very distorted picture of the church in our country." Cardinal Roger Mahony
As members of the college of bishops, the American bishops are united with Catholic bishops around the world under the leadership of the bishop of Rome. Because of this relationship, the American bishops must interact with other bishops and with the pope's staff in the Vatican curia. This interaction often, but not always, takes place through the National Conference of Catholic Bishops.
That the Vatican gives special attention to the U.S. church is not surprising. "The Church in the United States, because of its size, wealth, and access to the media, has an exceptional influence -- a ripple effect -- on the Church in other countries," explained Archbishop John Roach. "If the Holy Father has singled us out for special attention, that is a recognition of the influence we exercise as a very large, active, and visible conference of bishops -- influence of which we may not always be fully aware ourselves because of our preoccupation with circumstances here at home."….
"Archbishop Romero gave his life but we cut back the budget." Bishop James Lyke
"We cannot continue to afford everything, what do you want to put your money in, fellas?" Msgr. Robert Lynch
"Many bishops loath bureaucracy, especially if its in Washington and they have to pay for it." Bishop William McManus
The NCCB/USCC, like any other organization, needs money to operate. The conference also attempts to look ahead and plan for the future. Examining how the conference plans, gets money, and spends it, provides an important perspective on the bishops' conference.
The finances of the bishops' conference are complicated because there are several programs some of which are separately incorporated. Even when not separately incorporated, the finances of the different units are often kept separate for accounting purposes. At least four different financial categories are worth noting….
"We need a good conference. We have a good conference. As our legacy to those who follow us, let us keep our conference strong and vital." Cardinal Joseph Bernardin
"[The conference], it's a trade organization." Archbishop Daniel Pilarczyk
"Bishops, just like the very poor and uneducated, should be treated with a special prudence." Monsignor Quixote
The NCCB/USCC is a religious organization operating within American context with a variety of strengths and weaknesses. This chapter will compare the conference to other legislative bodies, examine its strengths and weaknesses, and make recommendations for improving it.
When social scientists look at the National Conference of Catholic Bishops, they see a legislative assembly that meets periodically, follows parliamentary procedures, elects officers, works through committees, and has a staff. A legislature "has more than one member and they meet, deliberate, and vote as equals as a way of doing their business," according to Nelson Polsby. "Multimemberedness, formal equality, collective decision making, deliberativeness" are characteristics of legislatures. As official bodies, their formal enactments are binding on some population and their legitimacy comes from their relationship to that population. Comparing the conference to other legislative bodies provides insight into its operations….
